Mixing Faith and Local Traditions to Shape Cultures Around the World
By Zahra N. Ahmed
Nov/Dec 25
When some think of countries with rich Islamic influences, images of the adhan echoing from towering minarets, pilgrims circling the Kaaba, or golden Sahara dunes often come to mind. But Islam’s global footprint extends far beyond those iconic scenes and is far more layered than many realize. Over the centuries, Muslims have journeyed across continents, weaving their faith into local traditions in ways that continue to mold communities today. From the mountains of China to the shores of Puerto Rico, here are five countries where Islam has left a lasting mark.
Ethiopia
When Prophet Muhammad’s (salla Allahu ‘alayhi wa sallam) earliest followers fled persecution in seventh century Makkah, they crossed the Red Sea to seek refuge in Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea). The region was, at the time, ruled by a Christian king, the Negus, known for his fairness and justice. His gift of asylum marked a turning point in Islamic history.
“Today, that moment has symbolic value and is celebrated among Ethiopia’s Muslims who believe they had the first contact with Islam in the world,” Terje Østebø, a professor in the Department of Religion and the Center for African Studies at the University of Florida, told Islamic Horizons.
Through trade routes, Islam spread inland to the walled city of Harar, one of the oldest Islamic cities in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage site. With more than 80 mosques and 100 shrines, Harar’s skyline of flat rooftops is punctuated by tapered minarets and earthen domes. The city’s buildings blend of Quranic inscriptions with classical Ethiopian design is a testament to centuries of cultural exchange. Hallmarks of Islamic architecture like slender minarets and intricate geometric patterns grace the Jami Mosque, a powerful symbol of the city’s rich Islamic history.
Though home to more than 40 million Muslims, Ethiopia’s Muslims remain a minority in a Christian-majority country of nearly 129 million people. And even as the third-largest Muslim population in Africa, Muslims in Ethiopia have struggled for visibility. Yet according to Østebø, these challenges have been fading over the last 30 years as more Ethiopian Muslims begin to assert their identity.
“They are growing more confident as a minority and sending a clear message: we are here and we want to be recognized,” Østebø said.
China
Islam took root in China more than 1,300 years ago, arriving with Silk Road traders and growing during the Mongol era. Over time, Islam mingled with extant Chinese culture to create a unique identity shaped by religion, language, and heritage.
According to Jonathan Lipman, Professor Emeritus of History and Asian Studies, being Muslim in China means different things to different people. Chinese Muslims are not a monolith; their experiences and practices vary widely across ethnic and regional lines. As a result, over centuries, they have adapted Islamic traditions to reflect local culture and everyday life.
“Muslims in China include knowledgeable religious leaders, atheists, farmers, factory workers, wealthy businesspeople, kebab makers, soldiers, and more,” said Lipman.
Two of the largest Muslim communities, the Hui and the Uyghurs, represent a spectrum of spiritual customs. The Hui, ethnically and linguistically close to Han Chinese, preserve distinct Islamic traditions like Huihui, a written language using Arabic script, and Sini calligraphy which blends Arabic script with Chinese brushwork. In contrast, Uyghurs are a Turkic people native to Xinjiang with their own language and customs. Their identity features distinct cuisines, clothing, and practices: spiced lamb kawaps (kebabs), doppas (embroidered skullcaps), Sufi rituals like group dhikr (remembrance of God), and traditional devotional music.
Today, the Chinese government targets Uyghurs by banning their religious customs and unique dialect. Millions of Uyghurs have been sent to re-education camps, where they are held without trial or formal charges. Mosques have been destroyed, copies of Quran seized, and families separated in a deliberate campaign of cultural erasure.
Still, across China, Islam has developed practices found nowhere else in the Muslim world. Women’s mosques, led by female imams, have existed since the 1800s. Built in 742, the Great Mosque of Xi’an’s exterior resembles a traditional Chinese temple with tiers of curved, upturned roofs, yet Quranic recitation during salah can be heard inside. Occasionally, Islamic rituals blend with ancestral veneration, a uniquely Chinese display of faith.
Despite today’s political pressure and increasing surveillance by the Chinese state, many Chinese Muslim communities continue to preserve their faith.
The Philippines
Long before Spanish ships arrived, Islam was already established in the Philippines, dating back to the 14th century. Arab and Malay missionaries and traders introduced the religion and built the powerful sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao — religious, political, and economic centers that helped form the country’s identity. Centuries of ocean trade also brought customs from Muslim-majority Indonesia and Malaysia.
The Moro people are indigenous to Mindanao, the second-largest island in the Philippines. Today, the Grand Mosque of Cotabato stands as one of Southeast Asia’s largest centers of Islamic worship. Clothing like the malong, a modest tube-like garment worn during Islamic ceremonies; dishes like rendang, adopted from Indonesian Muslim communities; and musical traditions like the kulintang, played during holidays and special events show the way Filipino Muslims have blended faith with pre-Islamic Moro traditions.
Lithuania
The Lipka Tatars of Lithuania are unique in Europe’s rich Muslim history. In the 14th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania welcomed the Lipka Tatars, Turkic Muslims who served as soldiers and administrators. Their descendants now make up one of Europe’s oldest Muslim communities. In southeastern Lithuania, their mosques, modest and wooden, stand as reminders of that history. Rare manuscripts called Kitabs maintain Islamic texts written in Arabic script and spelled phonetically in Lithuanian. Their cuisine also tells the story of a layered culture, with dishes like katlama, a flaky layered pastry, alongside stews that blend Central Asian and Baltic flavors. The Lipka Tatars carry forward a distinct way of life where religious history and tradition come together daily.
Puerto Rico
Islam’s presence in Puerto Rico is a story of cultural fusion that goes back centuries, often overlooked but deeply woven into the island’s diverse heritage. Long before modern migration, Islam arrived with Spanish ships, carrying Muslims fleeing the fall of Granada in 1492. As Islamic rule ended in Spain, thousands of Muslims, known as moriscos or “Cristo-Muslims,” were forced to convert, face exile, or flee. Many boarded voyages to Spain’s new colonies, including Puerto Rico, where they were barred from openly practicing their faith but held onto Islam in secret, passing down prayers and rituals.
“Through those passages, we had fresh Islamic influence in the Caribbean,” said Wendy Díaz, Spanish content coordinator for WhyIslam and co-founder of Hablamos Islam, an Islamic educational initiative for Spanish-speaking communities. “But the first contact Spain had with the New World began in Puerto Rico — and the Islamic world wasn’t far behind.”
Islam’s roots also reach back to the transatlantic slave trade. Historians estimate that up to 30% of enslaved Africans brought to Puerto Rico practiced Islam. Though their beliefs often faded under the brutal weight of forced labor and cultural erasure, traces survived in oral traditions and burial customs.
The 20th century brought new waves of Muslim migrants from Palestine, Lebanon, and Syria fleeing the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Though small, the Palestinian community is visible and connected to Puerto Rico’s identity. As Díaz notes, “Puerto Ricans see echoes of colonization and resilience in Palestine’s plight,” a shared experience that deepens cultural ties and political awareness. Arab communities established mosques and cultural centers across the island, helping shape Puerto Rico’s Muslim identity today. There are eight major mosques, and Islam is steadily growing among Afro-Caribbean and Latino Puerto Ricans.
Spanish itself carries about 8% Arabic loanwords like arroz (rice), azúcar (sugar), and almohada (pillow) — another layer of Islamic influence.
“There’s Islamic influence all around us,” said Díaz. “In our food, our architecture, even in our language — we just didn’t always know it.”
During Ramadan, Puerto Rico comes alive with a mix of Spanish, Arabic, and Caribbean music. Families break their fast with dates, a tradition tied to the practice of Prophet Muhammad (salla Allahu ‘alayhi wa sallam), alongside arroz con gandules, a beloved dish of rice and pigeon peas that reflects the island’s rich cultural tapestry.
A Mosaic of Faith
Across continents and climates, Islam has developed diverse customs culturally, politically, and theologically. In every region touched by Islam, communities made the faith local, integrating it into daily life through language, food and customs. So next time someone claims Islam belongs only in the Middle East, remind them Islam has deep roots in communities around the world.
Zahra N. Ahmed, based in Houston, Texas, is a storyteller with more than a decade of journalism experience. Her work focuses on the Muslim experience, using human-centered reporting to explore identity, faith, and belonging.
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