By M. Basheer Ahmed

July/August 2023

When the Islamic Medical Association of North America invited me to present a paper on “Muslim Physicians of Spain in the Medieval Era,” I studied the works of great Muslim philosophers and scientists who significantly contributed to world civilization. I realized that many Muslims, and those from other faiths, do not know of these monumental contributions during the so-called Dark Ages in Europe. Most Westerners assumed that the world had plunged into literary ignorance for more than a thousand years after the decline of the Roman Empire in the fifth century. They deliberately ignored documenting Muslim scientists’ contributions.

However, science and Islam go hand in hand. The Quran and Hadith inspire Muslims to learn. The first revealed verse, “Read! In the Name of your Lord, who has created (all that exists). He has created man from a clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous, Who has taught (the writing) by the pen, has taught man that which he knew not” (96:1-5). The Quran has mentioned the human capacity to read, understand, and record observations for future use. With this intention, I founded the Institute of Medieval and Post-Medieval Studies in 2001. Our aim is to disseminate information about great medieval Muslim scholars and their contributions. I also edited the book “Muslim Contribution to World Civilization” (International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2005). 

Muslim Contributions to Science

When Muslims conquered territories of the Byzantine Empire, they were amazed and fascinated by the new fields of study. Not only did they acquire new knowledge, but they also made great contributions to science, philosophy, and mathematics over eight centuries (7-15th). The Abbasid Caliphs, who supported education, established the great institution Bait ul Hikmah (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad. This served as a center for translating books from Greek, Latin, Chinese, and Indian languages to Arabic. In the 8th century, it had the world’s most extensive library. The Abbasids attracted the best scientists, philosophers, and theologians, regardless of their ethnic or religious backgrounds. This helped Baghdad become the center of knowledge, culture, and trade. In 751 H, 400 years before Europe, Muslims acquired papermaking technology from the Chinese, which helped scholars preserve their knowledge in books. 

The great universities of Baghdad, Cordoba, Egypt, Iran, Turkey, and Uzbekistan attracted students from all over the world. These institutions promoted a vibrant intellectual curiosity and freedom of expression necessary for scientific inquiry and research. Among the thousands of scholars,, some noted ones include physicist Al-Haytham, physicians Al-Razi and Ibn Sina, philosopher Ibn Rushd, traveler Ibn Battuta, mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, astronomers Ulugh Bey and Al-Tusi, surgeon Al-Zahrawi, and geographer Al-Masudi.

Why the Decline?

About ten years ago, I became curious why Muslims, who had reached the pinnacle of knowledge by the 11th century, were today at the lowest on the totem pole. This led to in-depth studies of the real reason for the downfall. Most articles and books have blamed the Mongol attack on Baghdad (1258 CE), which destroyed universities and killed many scholars. Many blamed colonialism as another significant reason. 

Indeed, these were contributing factors, but the main reason was the theologians’ opposition to studying philosophy and science as they were concerned that it would weaken the faith. Another major factor was that the Suljuk Caliphs, who took power from Abbasids, were convinced by their Grand Vizier Nizam-ul-Mulk (d. 1092 CE) that educated people would demand democracy and they would lose control. The caliphs withdrew their support of excellent universities, and Nizam-ul-Mulk changed the curriculum to Islamic studies (dars-e-Nizamiyya) in all the universities. This was seen as the first government sponsored education system in history. This served to strengthen the Sunni creed and to train the officials needed by the state. 

Muslim fanatics destroyed laboratories and observatories. The great observatory in Samarkand built by Ulugh Beg was demolished in 1490, and in 1580, Sheikh al-Islam convinced the sultan to shut down the great observatory, which Taqi ad-Din had built in Istanbul in 1577. 

The decline of the pursuit of knowledge started in the 11th century. By the 15th century, no university in the Muslim world was teaching science and philosophy and published very little scientific work. The Ottoman Empire declined to use the printing press (invented in Germany in the 15th century) until the 17th century as it was declared haram by muftis.

Between the 15th and 18th centuries, Muslims still had great empires: Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal but succumbed to colonialism between the 17-18th century as they could not stop the European onslaught. Europeans transferred the Muslim scientists’ intellectual work by translating from Arabic to Latin and other European languages. They started advancing scientific, industrial, and economic development from the 15th century onwards, leaving Muslim countries far behind.

By the 20th century, Muslim countries gained independence from colonialism, but remained educationally backward and behind in industrial and scientific development. Many Asian countries which gained independence after the Muslim countries, such as China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore, have made significant scientific and industrial progress. 

Scientific Development in the Western World

Electricity not only removes darkness but is used in all aspects of life. The advances in transportation from bicycles to bullet trains and in communication from postal mail to instant messaging has revolutionized the world. Science has helped us combat many deadly diseases. Meteorologists can predict thunderstorms and tornadoes, saving thousands of human lives. Now, artificial intelligence is trying to make our lives easier.  

Muslims have contributed to scientific discoveries, but not at the rate at which they could have if they didn’t face the obstacles outlined above. 

1.7 billion Muslims living in 57 Muslim-majority countries constitute 25% of the world population. Yet, Muslims have only 1% of all scientists and 6% of scientific publications. Muslims spend 0.5% of GDP on research and development vs. 10% of spending by Western countries. The literacy rate is 40% in Muslim countries vs. 90% in the Western world. The Muslim world has 500 scientists and technologies per million population vs. 5000 per million in Western countries. 

The great Muslim scholars of the medieval years were the product of the educational and cultural environment at its peak in the Muslim world. They did not see any dichotomy between religion and science. Their motivation was to gain knowledge for the benefit of humanity. 

The colonists reintroduced the subjects of science and technology in universities in Muslim countries. Despite resistance from Muslim scholars, few educators supported and promoted scientific education, such as Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (d. 1898) in India and Muhammad ‘Abduh (d. 1905) in Egypt. In the last 50 years, Muslim scientists, who received the Nobel Prize achieved this status by doing major research work in Western countries. Many emerging young scientists are doing most of their work in the West..  

Integrated Education

Science and technology have provided humans with numerous comforts of life, and Muslims should focus on such research and critical thinking. Keeping the balance between worldly and spiritual aspects is the purpose of human creation, and Muslims must include strong moral and ethical values in the integrated education system.

The Quran states that believers have been sent for the betterment of humanity, that they will promote what is good, and prevent what is wrong (3:110). Carrying out rituals mechanically without any impact on personal life, family, and society is not fulfilling the fundamental purpose of worship in Islam. A hadith narrated by Abu Huraira states, “Whoever relieves human’s distress in this world, God will rescue them from the difficulties of the Hereafter” (Muslim). We can eradicate poverty through scientific education and industrial development. Zakat that is collected should be spent on education to eliminate poverty. In this way, people will eventually not need zakat.

The Need for Future Scientists

IMPMS held an essay competition for middle and high school students to encourage them to become future scientists. They wrote essays on Muslim scholars and scientists of the medieval years, Muslim Nobel Laureates in science, and several leading Muslim scientists in Western countries. Their research shone in their excellent essays. They agreed that the competition motivated them to become scientists and innovators. 

IMPMS has also joined hands with organizations like DiscoverSTEM (https://discoverstem.info/) which nurture students and foster critical thinking at an early age to create the next generation of intellectuals worldwide. DiscoverSTEM has been training students in innovative thinking and entrepreneurial mindset and solving real-life problems such as aerospace, power, energy, security, health, and environment. This creates an interest in STEM and using problem-solving skills to find innovative solutions for real-world issues.

Since the 11th century, philosophy as a discipline has declined among Muslims. We need to understand how religious injunctions were understood differently by philosophers in their time. This type of thriving intellectual environment is absent in our contemporary era. Some religious leaders threaten intellectuals, philosophers, and independent scholars. Islamic philosophy is needed to solve the Muslim social and educational crises.

God has given humans the best gift of intelligence for critical and rational thinking. They should use this for scientific discoveries to improve human conditions. It is part of worship. Islam needs a renewed scientific and philosophical vigor to bring about an Islamic Renaissance. After all, the Quran states, “God will never change our condition unless we first act to change ourselves” (13:11).

Dr. Basheer Ahmed, a former professor of psychiatry at Southwestern Medical School, Dallas. He is chairman emeritus at the Muslim Community Center for Human Services, Dallas.

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